Jammu & Kashmir on the path of Modernization
(Notes)
Table of Contents
1. Introduction
4.1. Economic Reforms
4.1.1. Land Reforms
4.1.2. Agricultural Expansion
4.1.3. Era of Cooperatives
4.1.5. Infrastructural Development
4.1.6. Industrial Growth
4.1.7. Kashmir Chalo Campaign
4.2. Social Reforms
4.2.1. Growth of Modern Education
4.2.2. New Space For Women
4.2.3. Health Care Facilities
4.3. Cultural Policy
4.3.1. Cultural Front
4.3.2. Lalla Rookh Publications
4.3.3. Jashn-I-Kashmir
1. INTRODUCTION
This chapter would highlight economic and social changes
that occurred in Jammu and Kashmir between 1947-1963. We will read about
developmental programmes that were initiated under the Naya Kashmir Manifesto.
2. NAYA KASHMIR MANIFESTO
On 29 September 1944, National Conference, adopted the Naya Kashmir Manifesto in a meeting of the political activists of the party at Sopore. It was a comprehensive plan for economic, social, political and cultural reconstruction of the region. B.P.L Bedi was considered as the author of the Manifesto. The Manifesto was divided into two parts-one dealing with the constitution of the state and the other with the national economic plan. It further envisaged the establishment of the councils for national education, cultural upliftment, women’s right, communication and health to ensure an equitable development of all the areas of the state. The National Economic Plan was the most significant part. It advocated the socialization of all instruments of production and the reorganization of property relationships. When the constitution of Jammu and Kashmir was adopted on 17th November, 1956 during the Prime Ministership of Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad, the Naya Kashmir Manifesto became the basis of the Directive Principles of State Policy.
3. ESTABLISHMENT OF NEW GOVERNMENT
2. NAYA KASHMIR MANIFESTO
On 29 September 1944, National Conference, adopted the Naya Kashmir Manifesto in a meeting of the political activists of the party at Sopore. It was a comprehensive plan for economic, social, political and cultural reconstruction of the region. B.P.L Bedi was considered as the author of the Manifesto. The Manifesto was divided into two parts-one dealing with the constitution of the state and the other with the national economic plan. It further envisaged the establishment of the councils for national education, cultural upliftment, women’s right, communication and health to ensure an equitable development of all the areas of the state. The National Economic Plan was the most significant part. It advocated the socialization of all instruments of production and the reorganization of property relationships. When the constitution of Jammu and Kashmir was adopted on 17th November, 1956 during the Prime Ministership of Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad, the Naya Kashmir Manifesto became the basis of the Directive Principles of State Policy.
3. ESTABLISHMENT OF NEW GOVERNMENT
 |
| Maharaja Hari Singh |
After the accession of Jammu and Kashmir to the dominion of India ( Instrument of Accession was signed on 26 October 1947 and came into effect on 27 October 1947), Maharaja Hari Singh appointed Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah, as the head of the Emergency administration on October 30, 1947. Sheikh Abdullah functioned as Chief Emergency Officer till 5th March, 1948. Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah took oath on 25th, March 1948 and had the freedom to choose his colleagues in the cabinet. In June 1949, Maharaja Hari Singh handed his powers to his son Yuvraj Karan Singh; who subsequently became the first Sadar-i-Riyasat of the State in 1952.
 |
| Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah |
 |
| Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad |
4.1. ECONOMIC REFORMS
4.1.1. LAND REFORMS
4.1.1. LAND REFORMS
In 1948 Government headed by Sheikh
Mohammad Abdullah abolished Jagirs, Muafis and Mukararies [except those granted
to religious places] and discontinued the abatement in land revenue given to
the chakdars. In the same year, Government launched the Grow More Food scheme
to bring cultivable waste lands under cultivation by allotting land to the
landless peasants. To protect the interests of the tenants the new Government,
in Oct 1948, amended the State Tenancy Act of 1924. The new Act came to be
known as the Tenancy Amendment Act, 1948 and guaranteed the fixity of tenure to
the tenant and also fixed the maximum rent payable by him to the landlord. Furthermore,
to alleviate the distress of the poverty-stricken people, the state enacted the
Distressed Debtors Relief Act of 1950 to relieve them from indebtedness. For
this purpose, five Debt Conciliation Boards were appointed in the districts of
Anantnag, Baramulla, Kathua, Jammu and Udhampur. The most important phase of
Land Reforms was introduced in 1950 by passing of the Big Landed Estates Abolition
Act, 1950. Through this Act, Landlordism in the State was abolished by
transferring land to the tiller without giving any compensation to the
expropriator. This Act came to be called as the Magna Carta of the peasant
rights in the state and its most important provisions were fixation of ceiling
on the holding of proprietor at 182 Kanals (22.5 acres) and transfer of land to
tillers with ownership rights.
IMPACT OF LAND REFORMS
These land reforms ended the privileges of the landlords, secured the position of the peasant and restored his confidence by making him the owner of the land. Visiting Jammu and Kashmir in mid-1950s, Daniel Thorner, an Agrarian Historian and Economist, observed that despite certain defects in implementation, the land reforms programme succeeded in removing fear from the peasantry. Land Reforms injected the elements of dynamism in the agricultural setting of the state and encouraged the peasant to make investments in land by making him the direct beneficiary of any such investments. The economic emancipation of the peasant paved way for his social advancement by motivating him to educate his children and avail facilities of better health and cultural advancement. These reforms also aimed at reducing the taxation which was the primary reason for the discontent among the masses during Maharaja’s period. However, it is to be noted that the land reforms did not do much in improving the conditions of landless laborers as the land appropriated from the landlords was distributed among the tillers of his estate. The land reforms had far-reaching political consequences as well. On the one hand, it created an everlasting support base for Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah but on the other hand these reforms antagonized the landlord class of the society who launched a rigorous campaign against him.
4.1.2. AGRICULTURAL EXPANSION: DEVELOPMENT OF IRRIGATIONAL PROJECTS
A separate department of irrigation was established out of the Public Works Development Organization. Irrigation was given priority consecutively during the first, second and third Five Year Plans. As a result of these measures, the average annual growth rate of food production increased from 82.56 lakh mounds in 1951-52 to 166.10 lakh mounds in 1964-65.
4.1.3. ERA OF COOPERATIVES
Greater emphasis was put on the Cooperative Movement with the object of bringing the entire village life into its fold. The Cooperatives remained instrumental in tackling debt issues, financing of crops, providing lands for cultivation on lease and encouraged the repayments in time. However, owing to the mismanagement and maladministration, the Cooperatives could not contribute much to revive the economy of the State.
4.1.4. MAJOR HIGHLIGHTS IN STATE BUILDING
In his determination to keep Jammu and Kashmir self sufficient, autonomous and financially independent, Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah rarely accepted funds from the Government of India. However, there came a shift from the previous stand during Bakshi’s regime (1953-1963). He viewed economic integration with India necessary to promote the overall aim of Naya Kashmir Manifesto. Bakshi Ghulam Muhammad in order to go forward with his modernizing agenda sought financial aid from Government of India. Thus, the Government of India provided Jammu &Kashmir with loans to implement its state building policy. In order to create economic betterment for peasants, workers and artisans, Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad was able to fulfil a number of developmental policies which were initially started under Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah. Thus, the state entered in the age of large scale modernization including agricultural reforms, industrial development, infrastructural growth, tourism and increased employment opportunities. Introduction of modern irrigation techniques like lift irrigation, application of fertilizers and popularization of China paddy with greater yielding capacity further modernized the state agriculture. Additionally, two important production programmes- Community Development Programme (CDP) and Intensive Agricultural Development Programme (IADP) were also initiated during the period of Bakshi Ghulam Muhammad.
4.1.5. INFRASTRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT
The construction of roads and buildings received huge impetus after 1947 especially under the Government of Bakshi Ghulam Muhammad. Apart from constructing educational institutions, hospitals, buildings for Government departments, hydroelectric projects, housing colonies and stadiums, Bakshi Ghulam Muhammad also significantly contributed to the establishment of a vast network of roads within the State. Construction of Banihal tunnel designed by German engineers was considered to be one of the greatest achievements of the time. The tunnel accommodated two-way traffic and resulted in greater flow of trade between Kashmir and rest of India. Further, in order to bridge up the rural urban divide the city bus service was started which connected the remote towns and villages. Electrification of the villages and anti-flood measures were also taken up. These developments gave boost to the tourism and the fruit industry.
4.1.6. INDUSTRIAL GROWTH
After 1947 the Government made concerted efforts for the promotion of industrial sector. For this, industrial estates were established at Gandhi Nagar (Jammu), Barzulla (Srinagar) and Anantnag at a total capital outlay of 5.26 million. Many new industries were established with technological and monetary assistance from the Government of India. Handicraft industry got impetus because of the training of artisans and craftsmen in shawl making, carpet weaving, wood carving, paper machie and silverware. The silk and woollen factories were modernized. Subsequently, the State held its first Industrial Exhibition in 1955 which opened greater avenues for Kashmiri goods in the market outside the region.
4.1.7. KASHMIR CHALO CAMPAIGN
The Kashmir Chalo Campaign by the Bakshi’s Government boosted tourism and film industry in the region. Advertisements were used to publicise the state achievements in the sphere of education, healthcare and industry. The entire administration was mobilized to take part in the campaign. Department of Information took the lead in propagating these developmental ideas to multiple audiences. The Government led by Bakshi took important steps to promote tourism which included opening up publicity wings all over the country, improvements in air services, abolition of permit system, construction of youth hostels and revitalizing hotel arrangements. A series of travel guides were printed and distributed through organizations like school, universities and media throughout India and elsewhere. The Government also built a Tourist Reception Centre in early sixties. Thus, Kashmir came into media gaze about its beautiful landscape and handicrafts. Many block buster movies were shot in Kashmir & places of natural attraction like Gulmarg, Pahalgam, Sonamarg, Kokernag, Verinag and Achabal became favourite destinations for the people of the countrty as well as world.
Financial Support and the State Building Project
In the post-1947 era the state received huge financial support from the Central Government. About 90% of the State’s Five Year Plans were funded by the Centre. The State was categorized as a Special State and received the Central assistance in the form of 70% Loan and 30% Grant which was unlike the other Special Category States which received financial assistance in the form of 90% grant and 10% Loan. Thus, whereas the Central financial assistance helped the state in carrying out its developmental projects but at the same time, it increased the dependence of the state on the Centre and also led to its indebtedness on the Centre.
4.2. SOIAL REFORMS:
4.2.1. GROWTH OF MODERN EDUCATION
During Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah’s regime, education was accorded top priority. About 35% of the annual budget was spent on the expansion of education and development of education infrastructure. He standardized the education from top to bottom. Job oriented courses were introduced and special arrangements were made for female education. An intermediate college exclusively for girls was established in Srinagar and Gandhi Memorial College for Women was established in Jammu. The University of Jammu and Kashmir was established in 1948. The new Government also constituted a Textbook Advisory Board in 1948, with the Prime Minister of the State as its Chairman, to prepare new textbooks to meet the contemporary challenges. This vision of modern education received further impetus during Bakshi’s reign with the full financial backing of the Central Government.
Following were the main highlights of the State Government’s education policy during this period:
• The salaries of the teachers were significantly increased and education from primary to University level was made free.
• A network of educational institutions for primary, middle and the higher education were opened and job oriented education was also incorporated in the curriculum.
• Textbooks were provided to the poor students and steps were taken to develop languages like Kashmiri, Dogri, and Bhoti apart from other regional languages.
• System of scholarship was constituted for poor students.
• Women education received special attention and there was an unprecedented increase in women schools and colleges.
• Medical and Engineering Colleges were established in Srinagar. National Institute of Technology and Government Medical College were founded during Bakshi’s regime.
In 1955, G.M. Sadiq as the Education Minister under Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad drafted the Educational Policy of the State. Emphasis was laid on progressive education that was primarily to meet the economic goals of the State. Mobile schools were also set up for the tribals like Gujjars and Bakkerwals. The far sighted vision behind such a comprehensive educational policy was to give a practical shape to the State’s goal of an equitable society.
4.2.2. NEW SPACE FOR WOMEN
Women education and later their employment resulted in their active presence in the public sphere. The achievement of the women during this period was so high that it altered the gender landscape of schools, colleges, office, courts, hospitals, hotels and business establishments; thus women began making a mark in every field.
4.2.3. HEALTH CARE FACILITIES
A number of steps were taken by the Dogra rulers and the successive Abdullah Gogvernment to provide better health services. The Bakshi Government chalked out, with the help of outside experts, an elaborate health programme and increased the budget for health services by more than 50 percent. The number of hospitals increased from 2 to 19 and those of the dispensaries from 87 to 401 by the end of 1960s. The most important step taken by the Government to make health services accessible to the common people was to abolish the operation fee levied in the State hospitals.
4.3. CULTURAL POLICY
Besides, promoting and preserving the composite culture of the state, it also tried to promote a bond between Jammu & Kashmir and India. While the process started under Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah, it was further expanded under Bakshi’s rule who was able to materialize the cultural aims of Naya Kashmir. The Bakshi regime is distinguished for promoting entertainment industry under state patronage.
4.3.1. CULTURAL FRONT
Cultural Front was an organization which contributed to the development of a syncretic cultural ethos. Writers affiliated with cultural front travelled throughout the region holding drama and theatre, programmes and activities on themes pertaining to social change, proletariat life, status of women and Hindu Muslim unity, in villages and small towns. Cultural Front was renamed as Cultural Congress in 1949 and began to publish its literary journal Kwang Posh. Important writers of the time were Dina Nath Nadim, Rehman Rahi, Dinoo Bhai Pant, Som Nath Zutshi, Prof. Ram Nath Shastri and Amin Kamil.
4.3.2. LALLA ROOKH PUBLICATIONS
Lalla Rookh Publications was established in 1955 as a non-profit organization. It collected, compiled and produced literature related to Kashmir and sold and distributed the same outside the region. Lalla Rookh publications was disbanded in 1957 and incorporated back to the Department of Information.
4.3.3. JASHN-I-KASHMIR
In 1956, the Jammu and Kashmir Government hosted first ever festival of Jashn-i-Kashmir which was held throughout the region. It intended to bring to light many aspects of Kashmiri culture and served as a vehicle of contact between Kashmir and the rest of India. It showcased regional theatre, music, poetry, dance of Kashmir as well as of various other Indian States.
4.3.4. J&K ACADEMY OF ART, CULTURE AND LANGUAGES
Furthermore, Government established the J&K Academy of Art, Culture and Languages in both the regions of the State in 1958. The scope of Cultural Academy was broader than the Lalla Rookh Publications as it also incorporated music, drama, theatre and dance in vernacular languages for further promotion of regional languages of the State. All cultural activities in the region effectively came under the purview of Cultural Academy which also developed ties with Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi.
IMPACT OF LAND REFORMS
These land reforms ended the privileges of the landlords, secured the position of the peasant and restored his confidence by making him the owner of the land. Visiting Jammu and Kashmir in mid-1950s, Daniel Thorner, an Agrarian Historian and Economist, observed that despite certain defects in implementation, the land reforms programme succeeded in removing fear from the peasantry. Land Reforms injected the elements of dynamism in the agricultural setting of the state and encouraged the peasant to make investments in land by making him the direct beneficiary of any such investments. The economic emancipation of the peasant paved way for his social advancement by motivating him to educate his children and avail facilities of better health and cultural advancement. These reforms also aimed at reducing the taxation which was the primary reason for the discontent among the masses during Maharaja’s period. However, it is to be noted that the land reforms did not do much in improving the conditions of landless laborers as the land appropriated from the landlords was distributed among the tillers of his estate. The land reforms had far-reaching political consequences as well. On the one hand, it created an everlasting support base for Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah but on the other hand these reforms antagonized the landlord class of the society who launched a rigorous campaign against him.
4.1.2. AGRICULTURAL EXPANSION: DEVELOPMENT OF IRRIGATIONAL PROJECTS
A separate department of irrigation was established out of the Public Works Development Organization. Irrigation was given priority consecutively during the first, second and third Five Year Plans. As a result of these measures, the average annual growth rate of food production increased from 82.56 lakh mounds in 1951-52 to 166.10 lakh mounds in 1964-65.
4.1.3. ERA OF COOPERATIVES
Greater emphasis was put on the Cooperative Movement with the object of bringing the entire village life into its fold. The Cooperatives remained instrumental in tackling debt issues, financing of crops, providing lands for cultivation on lease and encouraged the repayments in time. However, owing to the mismanagement and maladministration, the Cooperatives could not contribute much to revive the economy of the State.
4.1.4. MAJOR HIGHLIGHTS IN STATE BUILDING
In his determination to keep Jammu and Kashmir self sufficient, autonomous and financially independent, Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah rarely accepted funds from the Government of India. However, there came a shift from the previous stand during Bakshi’s regime (1953-1963). He viewed economic integration with India necessary to promote the overall aim of Naya Kashmir Manifesto. Bakshi Ghulam Muhammad in order to go forward with his modernizing agenda sought financial aid from Government of India. Thus, the Government of India provided Jammu &Kashmir with loans to implement its state building policy. In order to create economic betterment for peasants, workers and artisans, Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad was able to fulfil a number of developmental policies which were initially started under Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah. Thus, the state entered in the age of large scale modernization including agricultural reforms, industrial development, infrastructural growth, tourism and increased employment opportunities. Introduction of modern irrigation techniques like lift irrigation, application of fertilizers and popularization of China paddy with greater yielding capacity further modernized the state agriculture. Additionally, two important production programmes- Community Development Programme (CDP) and Intensive Agricultural Development Programme (IADP) were also initiated during the period of Bakshi Ghulam Muhammad.
4.1.5. INFRASTRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT
The construction of roads and buildings received huge impetus after 1947 especially under the Government of Bakshi Ghulam Muhammad. Apart from constructing educational institutions, hospitals, buildings for Government departments, hydroelectric projects, housing colonies and stadiums, Bakshi Ghulam Muhammad also significantly contributed to the establishment of a vast network of roads within the State. Construction of Banihal tunnel designed by German engineers was considered to be one of the greatest achievements of the time. The tunnel accommodated two-way traffic and resulted in greater flow of trade between Kashmir and rest of India. Further, in order to bridge up the rural urban divide the city bus service was started which connected the remote towns and villages. Electrification of the villages and anti-flood measures were also taken up. These developments gave boost to the tourism and the fruit industry.
4.1.6. INDUSTRIAL GROWTH
After 1947 the Government made concerted efforts for the promotion of industrial sector. For this, industrial estates were established at Gandhi Nagar (Jammu), Barzulla (Srinagar) and Anantnag at a total capital outlay of 5.26 million. Many new industries were established with technological and monetary assistance from the Government of India. Handicraft industry got impetus because of the training of artisans and craftsmen in shawl making, carpet weaving, wood carving, paper machie and silverware. The silk and woollen factories were modernized. Subsequently, the State held its first Industrial Exhibition in 1955 which opened greater avenues for Kashmiri goods in the market outside the region.
4.1.7. KASHMIR CHALO CAMPAIGN
The Kashmir Chalo Campaign by the Bakshi’s Government boosted tourism and film industry in the region. Advertisements were used to publicise the state achievements in the sphere of education, healthcare and industry. The entire administration was mobilized to take part in the campaign. Department of Information took the lead in propagating these developmental ideas to multiple audiences. The Government led by Bakshi took important steps to promote tourism which included opening up publicity wings all over the country, improvements in air services, abolition of permit system, construction of youth hostels and revitalizing hotel arrangements. A series of travel guides were printed and distributed through organizations like school, universities and media throughout India and elsewhere. The Government also built a Tourist Reception Centre in early sixties. Thus, Kashmir came into media gaze about its beautiful landscape and handicrafts. Many block buster movies were shot in Kashmir & places of natural attraction like Gulmarg, Pahalgam, Sonamarg, Kokernag, Verinag and Achabal became favourite destinations for the people of the countrty as well as world.
Financial Support and the State Building Project
In the post-1947 era the state received huge financial support from the Central Government. About 90% of the State’s Five Year Plans were funded by the Centre. The State was categorized as a Special State and received the Central assistance in the form of 70% Loan and 30% Grant which was unlike the other Special Category States which received financial assistance in the form of 90% grant and 10% Loan. Thus, whereas the Central financial assistance helped the state in carrying out its developmental projects but at the same time, it increased the dependence of the state on the Centre and also led to its indebtedness on the Centre.
4.2. SOIAL REFORMS:
4.2.1. GROWTH OF MODERN EDUCATION
During Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah’s regime, education was accorded top priority. About 35% of the annual budget was spent on the expansion of education and development of education infrastructure. He standardized the education from top to bottom. Job oriented courses were introduced and special arrangements were made for female education. An intermediate college exclusively for girls was established in Srinagar and Gandhi Memorial College for Women was established in Jammu. The University of Jammu and Kashmir was established in 1948. The new Government also constituted a Textbook Advisory Board in 1948, with the Prime Minister of the State as its Chairman, to prepare new textbooks to meet the contemporary challenges. This vision of modern education received further impetus during Bakshi’s reign with the full financial backing of the Central Government.
Following were the main highlights of the State Government’s education policy during this period:
• The salaries of the teachers were significantly increased and education from primary to University level was made free.
• A network of educational institutions for primary, middle and the higher education were opened and job oriented education was also incorporated in the curriculum.
• Textbooks were provided to the poor students and steps were taken to develop languages like Kashmiri, Dogri, and Bhoti apart from other regional languages.
• System of scholarship was constituted for poor students.
• Women education received special attention and there was an unprecedented increase in women schools and colleges.
• Medical and Engineering Colleges were established in Srinagar. National Institute of Technology and Government Medical College were founded during Bakshi’s regime.
In 1955, G.M. Sadiq as the Education Minister under Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad drafted the Educational Policy of the State. Emphasis was laid on progressive education that was primarily to meet the economic goals of the State. Mobile schools were also set up for the tribals like Gujjars and Bakkerwals. The far sighted vision behind such a comprehensive educational policy was to give a practical shape to the State’s goal of an equitable society.
4.2.2. NEW SPACE FOR WOMEN
Women education and later their employment resulted in their active presence in the public sphere. The achievement of the women during this period was so high that it altered the gender landscape of schools, colleges, office, courts, hospitals, hotels and business establishments; thus women began making a mark in every field.
4.2.3. HEALTH CARE FACILITIES
A number of steps were taken by the Dogra rulers and the successive Abdullah Gogvernment to provide better health services. The Bakshi Government chalked out, with the help of outside experts, an elaborate health programme and increased the budget for health services by more than 50 percent. The number of hospitals increased from 2 to 19 and those of the dispensaries from 87 to 401 by the end of 1960s. The most important step taken by the Government to make health services accessible to the common people was to abolish the operation fee levied in the State hospitals.
4.3. CULTURAL POLICY
Besides, promoting and preserving the composite culture of the state, it also tried to promote a bond between Jammu & Kashmir and India. While the process started under Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah, it was further expanded under Bakshi’s rule who was able to materialize the cultural aims of Naya Kashmir. The Bakshi regime is distinguished for promoting entertainment industry under state patronage.
4.3.1. CULTURAL FRONT
Cultural Front was an organization which contributed to the development of a syncretic cultural ethos. Writers affiliated with cultural front travelled throughout the region holding drama and theatre, programmes and activities on themes pertaining to social change, proletariat life, status of women and Hindu Muslim unity, in villages and small towns. Cultural Front was renamed as Cultural Congress in 1949 and began to publish its literary journal Kwang Posh. Important writers of the time were Dina Nath Nadim, Rehman Rahi, Dinoo Bhai Pant, Som Nath Zutshi, Prof. Ram Nath Shastri and Amin Kamil.
4.3.2. LALLA ROOKH PUBLICATIONS
Lalla Rookh Publications was established in 1955 as a non-profit organization. It collected, compiled and produced literature related to Kashmir and sold and distributed the same outside the region. Lalla Rookh publications was disbanded in 1957 and incorporated back to the Department of Information.
4.3.3. JASHN-I-KASHMIR
In 1956, the Jammu and Kashmir Government hosted first ever festival of Jashn-i-Kashmir which was held throughout the region. It intended to bring to light many aspects of Kashmiri culture and served as a vehicle of contact between Kashmir and the rest of India. It showcased regional theatre, music, poetry, dance of Kashmir as well as of various other Indian States.
4.3.4. J&K ACADEMY OF ART, CULTURE AND LANGUAGES
Furthermore, Government established the J&K Academy of Art, Culture and Languages in both the regions of the State in 1958. The scope of Cultural Academy was broader than the Lalla Rookh Publications as it also incorporated music, drama, theatre and dance in vernacular languages for further promotion of regional languages of the State. All cultural activities in the region effectively came under the purview of Cultural Academy which also developed ties with Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi.
5. New Words And Terms
Socialist welfare state; A form of government in which the state protects the economic and social well-being of its citizens
Sadar-i-Riyasat; In 1952, the Dogra’s hereditary position was abolished completely and was replaced by a Constitutional head of the state referred to as Sadar-i-Riyasat. Sadar-i-Riyasat was elected by the Constituent Assembly for a term of 5 years.
Jagir; A land grant given by state to an individual in lieu of services; the individual held right to collect revenue from the land.
Muafis; A land grant exempted from payment of land revenue, given by state to an individual or religious place.
Mukraris; Fixed cash grants.
Chakdar; A native land tenant acting as intermediate in position between the proprietor and cultivator.
Paper Machie; A craft using waste paper to form beautiful articles. It is a popular art in Kashmir.
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